(10-Minute Read)
In my recent debate with Muslim author Kenny Bomer, we had the opportunity to discuss and look at his perspectives about the alleged influences and adaptions that were interpolated into the Bible from sources like the Ugaritic texts and other Ancient Near Eastern narratives.  You can view the complete debate here: DEBATE!

Was Israel Monolatrous?

I am convinced by several scholars like Dr. Larry Hurtado and Dr. Richard Bauckham that Jewish Monotheism was strict. The general assumption Kenny opt for is that the instances in the Old Testament where there are references made to other “gods” (Ex. 20:2, Deut.5:6) that these gods must actually exist, and therefore El, or Yahweh, must have been part of a pantheon. There are two problems with this assumption; first, the Jewish belief was always that there is only One God (Deut.6:4) and all other “gods” was demonic entities trying to occupy the place of the One God of Israel or made up gods that were a deduction made from nature and the world around them. If you look at the “JPS Torah Commentary on Deuteronomy, published by the Jewish Publication Society[1] and other biblical scholars like Yehezkel Kaufmann and the American archaeologist W. F. Albright there is a few comments from them that we need to consider.

“From the Bible and from archaeological evidence, most Israelites were de facto monotheistic ever since the time of Moses. From its earliest stages, biblical religion viewed all gods other than YHVH as ineffective nonentities. Rarely does a biblical character refer to another deity as doing anything…

The fact that Israel would mention or even venerate other “gods” does not assume they definitely exist, neither does it preclude that they were not demonic forces. Another interesting statement from Kaufmann and Albright is that even though there were certain individuals that would go after other “gods”, these were few, and the assumption was always that it was done at the expense of the One true God of Israel. 

“Most Israelites accused of worshiping other gods seem to have worshiped only images, and do not seem to have believed in living powers behind the images as authentic paganism did; they believed, in other words, that the images themselves possessed divine powers and that the gods were the images and nothing more… the number of people who worshiped statues and supernatural beings does not appear to have been large… Most of the idolatry reported in Kings was sponsored by the kings themselves, often for political reasons connected with foreign policy; few of these reports indicate that large numbers of common people were involved. Archaeological evidence of polytheism is also scant: few, if any, representations of male deities have ever been found in clearly Israelite contexts, and most of the figurines of females found at Israelite sites represent humans, not goddesses…  Israelite inscriptions with religious content rarely mention other gods, and of Israelite personal names that refer to a deity, only six percent refer to deities other than YHVH; the other ninety-four percent mention YHVH….

As William Albright put it,

 “Mosaic monotheism, like that of the following centuries (at least down to the seventh century [B.C.E.]) was…practical and implicit rather than intellectual and explicit…The Israelites felt, thought, and acted like monotheists.”

Did Israel go from monolatry to monotheism?

There is no evidence in antiquity that can verify with certainty that Israel progressed from monolotrous to monotheistic worship. From the standpoint of Jewish tradition, which accepts that the Pentateuch was transmitted to Moses in its entirety around 3,300 years ago, it is clear that the Jewish religion was always monotheistic rather than monolatristic. Moses wrote in Deuteronomy (4:35):

“Unto thee, it was shown that thou mightest know that the LORD, He is God; there is none else beside Him.”

“Know this day, and lay it to thy heart, that the LORD, He is God in heaven above and upon the earth beneath; there is none else.” (4:39).  

Also, note that the Prophet Isaiah (44:6) wrote:

“I am the First and I am the Last, and besides me, there are no gods.”

Similar examples include II Samuel (7:22), Isaiah (45:5, 45:21-22, 46:9), Psalms (86:10), and I Chronicles (17:20).

In the context of the above verses, it is evident that passages referring to other deities do not imply that the Bible recognizes that they exist in the same sense that devotees of those religions believe, but rather that they exist within the beliefs and mythologies of those religions. Neither can we see a progression in Israel’s context anywhere where they went from monolatry to a monotheistic faith? 

Was Israel influenced by Canaanite religions?

There were periods when many Jews abandoned Judaism to worship other deities (sometimes without totally rejecting traditional Jewish worship, (see for example 1 Kings, 18:21), and there were probably other individuals who exhibited monolatristic beliefs, but this was a departure from the normative Judaism of the Bible. It is important to note that we do not deny that there was similar imagery utilized when the authors looked at cultures and conceptions around them. I would just say that just because the imagery is utilized it does not necessarily prove direct parallels.  As Israeli scholar Yehezkel Kaufmann shows clearly,

Israel was more concerned with a polemic against idolatry that would exclude other Gods in light of YWHWs superiority than the numeric understanding of the One God. God is One“[2]

Again, similarities do not prove direct parallels!

It is interesting to note that the very reason God forbade Israel to intermingle with other tribes was not that God was vindictive or strange, it is because He did not want them to adopt or practice the detestable deeds of other nations (Exo.34:12, Deut.7:3, 1 Kings 11:2). It is therefore clear in the dietary restrictions and the reluctance for them to intermarry with other nations. 

Tensions between Yahweh and El (ohim)

One of the fruits of the Documentary Hypothesis was to assume a disparity between Yahweh and El. In this view, El was a deity that stemmed directly from a Pantheon of gods as a high god. Israel then simply adopted various conceptions of various deities and incorporated them into one idea of Yahweh. I think Gleason Archer sums up the difficulty to look at the tensions in the text beautifully when he writes in his, “A Survey of the Old Testament Introduction”[3],

“What explanation does account for the distribution of Yahweh and Elohim throughout the Torah? A careful study of the etymology and usage of the two names indicates that the name chosen depended upon the context of the situation. Elohim (which is perhaps derived from a root meaning “powerful, ” “strong ” or “foremost”) is used to refer to God as the Almighty Creator of the universe and Lord over nature and mankind in general. Hence only Elohim is appropriate in Genesis 1 since the subject there dealt with is creation. Yahweh, on the other hand, is the covenant name of God, which is reserved for situations in which some covenant engagement of God is involved. This distinction between the two names of God was clearly perceived and defined by Rabbi Jehuda Hallevi as long ago as the twelfth century AD, when he defined Elohim as the divine name in general, whereas Adonay specified the God of revelation and covenant.

I think anyone that that tries to read much into the diverse use of the names of the almighty is fishing in an empty pond. Even critical scholars like Marvin H Pope who wrote on “El in the Ugaritic Texts” agree with Dr. Abraham Kuenen, in his “Hexateuch” Pg. 56. Concedes.

“The history of critical investigation has shown that far too much weight has often been laid on agreement in the use of the divine names… It is well, therefore, to utter a warning against laying an exaggerated stress on this one phenomenon. “

Ivan Engnell (Gamla Testamentet) writes:

“The different divine names have different ideological associations and therewith different import. Thus, Yahweh is readily used when it is a question of Israel’s national God, indicated as such over against foreign gods, and where the history of the patriarchs is concerned, while on the other hand Elohim, ‘God, ‘ gives more expression to a ‘theological ‘ and abstract-cosmic picture of God in larger and more moving contexts . . .”

Another assumption is that Yahweh was a Son of El, a supreme Canaanite Deity and he worked his way up to become the one, and only God. Again, there is nothing in antiquity that would emphatically affirm such a notion. Scholar Dr. Michael Heiser wrote quite extensively about this in his article, “Are Yahweh and El Distinct Deities in Deut. 32:8-9 and Psalm 82?”

Kenny mentioned the Divine Council in Psalm 82 and asked why would Yahweh call humans Elohim? This is a question a lot of people have struggled with, and as I have mentioned above there are two options already considered. The important fact is that Psalm 82 could be read as a polemic against Ugaritic-Canaanite gods. Jesus refers to human leaders or powerful men (see Ex.7:1)being Elohim using their delegated authority in advance of their own pride (John 10:34-36) but assures us that they will die mere men (Ps.82:6-7).

To reaffirm, the Bible does mention other ‘gods’ the pagans worshipped but makes it clear that these are simply lifeless idols (Ps.96:5, 115:4-7, Is.46:1-2, 1 Cor.10:19; 12:2). Kenny mentioned the book written by Mark S. Smith titled, “The Origins of Biblical Monotheism.” In my opinion, Mark examines the meaning of “divinity” in the ancient near East and considers how this concept applies to Yahweh and then conflates the Ugaritic motif of the seventy sons of El and Athirat (CAT 1.4 VI 46) for instance with passages like Ps 82, Ps.135:5, Psalms 97:9, Psalms 86:8, and Deuteronomy 10:17 and 4:19.

The Great Angel by Margaret Barker and Plurality and the two powers in heaven.

Kenny then ventured to use some of the sources I have used as well in the last few years to affirm the plurality of Yahweh in the Old Testament. I praised Kenny for this effort and mentioned that for years Muslims insisted that the Old Testament was strictly unitary. Yet, it seems like Kenny’s whole argument in the debate suggests that there is some form of plural complexity evident within the Old Testament to which I would wholeheartedly agree with! That being said, I think the Trinity is the best unitary explanation possible that can uphold the Jewish affirmation of the One God as well as the plurality Christians consider in the Old and New Testaments.

Kenny mentioned Margaret Barker and I mentioned Alan F Seagal that affirms a similar idea in his book, “Two powers in heaven”, that shows pre-Christian Judaism was not unitary and that the roots of Christian Trinitarian theology lie in a pre-Christian Palestinian belief about angels–a belief derived from the ancient religion of Israel, in which there was a “High God” and several “Sons of God.” Yahweh was a son of God, manifested on earth in human form as an angel or in the Davidic King. Jesus was a manifestation of Yahweh and was acknowledged as Son of God, Messiah, and Lord. Barker relies on canonical and deutero-canonical works and literature from Qumran and rabbinic sources to present her thoughtful investigation.

Maybe I can end here by giving a quick synopsis of why I believe there is no absolute unitarianism taught in the Old Testament. Famous scholar N.T. Wright affirms that unipersonal unitarianism was only a late feature in Judaism. 

“about the nature and variety of early Jewish monotheism… we have very few examples of ‘pure’ [unipersonalism] monotheism anywhere, including in the Hebrew Bible… there is no suggestion that ‘monotheism’, or praying the Shema, had anything to do with the numerical analysis of the inner being of Israel’s God Himself… we find strong evidence during this period of Jewish groups and individuals who, speculating on the meaning of some difficult passages of Scripture (Dan7; Gen 1) suggested that the Divine being might encompass a plurality…but none of these show any awareness that they are transgressing normal Jewish monotheism.”[4] “Jewish-style … Monotheism was never, in our period, an inner analysis of the inner being of the One God. It was always a way of saying, frequently at great risk: our God is the true God, and your gods are worthless idols. It was a way of holding onto hope.”[5]

There are quite a few Jewish Scholars that affirm that the Old Testament was vastly plural even though they would never deny monotheism.  Nahum Sarna affirms that:

“From several texts, it is clear that the demarcation between God and His angel is often blurred [Gen.16:7-9, 11, 15-18; Exod.3:2, 4; Judg.6:11-23] at the Exodus from Egypt it is now God [Exod.13:21]; now His angel [Exod.14:9] goes ahead of the Israelite camp.”[6] [7]

This is the point that Biblical Trinitarians tried to make for years, and we welcome something like Kenny’s search to prove exactly what we have been trying to tell Muslims for years. All we are trying to say is that the Bible navigates these sure issues without violating what we hold dear about the One true God. The Biblical God is One, yet we recognize he is unlike all others in his Triunity.[8] As Israeli scholar Yehezkel Kaufmann shows clearly, Israel was more concerned with a polemic against idolatry that would exclude other Gods in light of YWHWs superiority than the numeric understanding of the One God. God is One“[9]

Before Jesus came in the Flesh, he was The Angel of the Lord. That is why when most people had direct encounters with Yahweh, The Angel of The Lord was always with him. The Angel of the Lord speaks as God, identifies Himself with God, and exercises the responsibilities of God (Genesis 16:7-12; 21:17-18; 22:11-18; Exodus 3:2; Judges 2:1-4; 5:23; 6:11-24; 13:3-22; 2 Samuel 24:16; Zechariah 1:12; 3:1; 12:8). In several of these appearances, those who saw the angel of the Lord feared for their lives because they had “seen the Lord.” The appearances of the angel of the Lord cease after the incarnation of Christ.

 We can identify a triad within the Old Testament.[12]

The Prophet Isaiah (63:9-16):

“In all their suffering, He suffered, and the Angel of His Presence saved them (ANGEL OF YHWH identified as YHWH)[13]. He redeemed them because of His love and compassion; He lifted them up and carried them all the days of the past. 10 But they rebelled and grieved His Holy Spirit (SPIRIT OF YHWH)[14]. So He became their enemy and fought against them. 11 Then He remembered the days of the past, the days of Moses and his people. Where is He who brought them out of the sea with the shepherds of His flock? Where is He who put His Holy Spirit among the flock? 12 He sent His glorious arm to be at Moses’ right hand, divided the waters before them to obtain eternal fame for Himself,13 and led them through the depths like a horse in the wilderness, so that they did not stumble. 14 Like cattle that go down into the valley, the Spirit of the Lord gave them rest. You led Your people this way to make a glorious name for Yourself. 15 Look down from heaven and see from Your lofty home—holy and beautiful. Where are Your zeal and Your might? Your yearning[i] and Your compassion are withheld from me. 16 Yet You are our Father, even though Abraham does not know us and Israel doesn’t recognize us. You, Yahweh, are our Father; from ancient times, Your name is our Redeemer.”

In Gen 1 there’s a dialogue between the divine narrator and his Spirit. Since God isn’t a physical being, he has no actual appearance. He can manifest himself symbolically. Sometimes as the Shekinah, sometimes as the Angel of the Lord. Sometimes as distinct individuals as in the Ancient of Days/Son of Man in Dan 7, sometimes as distinct individuals the Baptism of Christ or Transfiguration or the Book of Revelation. Jewish Scholar Benjamin Summer in his podcast ‘The bodies of God and the ancient world of Israel’ Part 4 says:

“When the New Testament talks about Jesus as being some sort of small scale human manifestation of God, that really sounds to Jews so utterly pagan, but what I’m suggesting is perhaps the radical idea for us Jews–that in fact, it’s not so pagan…We Jews have always tended to sort of make fun of the Trinity…[that Christians] aren’t real monotheists like we Jews are or like the Muslims are, but I think what we have been seeing from what I’ve been saying for the past couple of days [is] the idea of the Trinity…[is] actually an old ancient Near Eastern idea…that can also function in a monotheistic context, … we Jews have no theological objection to the doctrine of the Trinity…The Trinity is an old Ancient Near Eastern idea that shows up in the Tanakh and in a different way shows up in Jewish mysticism as well.”[15] [16]

In Conclusion:

There are quite a few points I would love Kenny to consider a bit further, but overall I think the discussion went extremely well. In the next article, I will look a bit further at some of the examples he cited and some of the assumptions he made. God bless and read with me again soon!

 

Works Cited:

Rabbi Eliezer Hakkalir(c.570 – c.640) was a Byzantine Jew and Hebrew poet who exclaimed,

“There are ‘Three’, but each exists by Himself.”[17]

[1] https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/monotheism/

[2] Unfortunately, the view of Maimonides is reactionary and also goes beyond what is stated in the Scriptures. In fact, there is not a single verse anywhere in the Bible that clearly or directly states that God is an absolute unity Answering Jewish Objections to Jesus: Theological Objections [Baker Books, Grand Rapids MI, 2000], Volume Two, pg. 4

[3] Pg.129-130. (revised and expanded version)

[4] The New Testament and the people of God: Pg.258-259.

[5] “The Meaning of Jesus” Pg.159-160.

[6] Genesis. The JPS Torah Commentary, Pg.383.

[7] From the Zohar, which is an early 2nd-century work ascribed to Shimon bar Yochai (“Rashbi”), a rabbi under the Roman persecution saying to his son Eliezer:

“Come and see the mystery of the word YHVH: there are three steps, each existing by itself: nevertheless, they are One, and so united that one cannot be separated from the other. The Ancient Holy One is revealed with three heads, which are united into one, and that head is three exalted. The Ancient One is described as being three: because the other lights emanating from him are included in the three. But how can three names be one? Are they really one because we call them one? How three can be one can only be known through the revelation of the Holy Spirit.”

[8] Herman Bavinck (1854-1921). Professor at Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam writes;

“Among creatures distinctions necessarily indicate manyness, division, separateness. Creatures exist side by side; they follow one another in space and time. But eternity, omnipresence, omnipotence, goodness, etc. do not admit of partition and distribution. God is absolute unity and simplicity, without any composition or division: and that unity is not contractual or ethical as among men, but absolute: is not accidental but essential to God’s being. Now the glory of the doctrine of the Trinity consists in this that God’s absolute unity does not exclude but demands diversity. The being of God is not an abstract unity; it is not an abstract idea but a fullness of essence, an infinite abundance of life whose diversity unfolds the highest unity. The self-distinctions within the Divine Being, which in Scripture are designated by terms “Father”, “Son”, and, “Holy Spirit” are called ‘persons’ in Theology.”

[9] Unfortunately, the view of Maimonides is reactionary and also goes beyond what is stated in the Scriptures. In fact, there is not a single verse anywhere in the Bible that clearly or directly states that God is an absolute unity Answering Jewish Objections to Jesus: Theological Objections [Baker Books, Grand Rapids MI, 2000], Volume Two, pg. 4

[10] Genesis. The JPS Torah Commentary, Pg.383.

[11] From the Zohar, which is an early 2nd-century work ascribed to Shimon bar Yochai (“Rashbi”), a rabbi under the Roman persecution saying to his son Eliezer:

“Come and see the mystery of the word YHVH: there are three steps, each existing by itself: nevertheless, they are One, and so united that one cannot be separated from the other. The Ancient Holy One is revealed with three heads, which are united into one, and that head is three exalted. The Ancient One is described as being three: because the other lights emanating from him are included in the three. But how can three names be one? Are they really one because we call them one? How three can be one can only be known through the revelation of the Holy Spirit.”

[12] B. B. Warfield writes:

“The Old Testament may be likened to a chamber richly furnished but dimly lighted; the introduction of light brings into it nothing, which was not in it before; but it brings out into clearer view much of what is in it but was only dimly or even not at all perceived before. The mystery of the Trinity is not revealed in the Old Testament, but the mystery of the Trinity underlies the Old Testament revelation, and here and there almost comes into view. Thus the Old Testament revelation of God is not corrected by the fuller revelation that follows it, but only perfected, extended, and enlarged.”

[13] Gen.16:22, 31; Exo.3; 14; Num.22; Judg.2,6,13; Zech.3;12; Ps.45:7

[14] 1 Sam.10:10, 19:20; Exo.31:3; Num.24:2; Judg.3:10; Job 3:4; Isaiah 63:11-12; Ps.51; Ezek.11:5; 2 Sam.23:2-3.

[15] http://benstanhope.blogspot.com/2014/02/the-bodies-of-god-and-jewish-trinity.html

[16] http://www.answeringmuslims.com/2019/01/the-trinity-in-old-testament-part-1.html

[17] Rabbi Eliezer Hakkalir, The Book of Creation, p. 89